Blank Activities in English Language Teaching Article

Blank Activities in English Language Teaching - Article Example The teachers can make students read the complete context. This activity makes students increase students reading ability, as they need to go to the material thoroughly. In this way, students get to know about the important and keywords used in the context. The more the students read, the more they improve their vocabulary. The teachers get to know about the student's that they take reading seriously or not. The Fill in the blanks activity is also used in psyche testing. Psyche testing is commonly used when recruiting military persons. Fill in the blanks is used in psyche testing in such a way that the sentence is incomplete and the portion of the sentence has to complete by the student. This technique can easily be evaluated by psychiatrists as they can figure out the person personality and aptitude by looking at the complete meaning which student has tried to deliver. This psychiatrist can judge whether the person has positive or negative thinking. Fill in the blanks technique is friendly for both students and the teachers. The students do not need to answer the questions in paragraphs i.e. lengthy answers are avoided. For teachers, it is easy for grading of the exam, as there are mostly absolute answers to be filled in the blanks, so they do not need to read long answers and grade them on a relative basis.

Applying Research in Practice Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Applying in Practice - Research Paper Example Evidence based research identifies practices for prevention and management of pressure ulcers that complement and support the institution’s recommendations. Continuous Bedside Pressure Mapping (CBPM) offers a basis for detecting pressures at different parts of a patient’s body and therefore helps to relocate the patient to offload pressure from the areas (Behrendt, Ghaznavi, Manhan, Craft, & Siddiqui, 2014). The authors established that CBPM reduces patients’ risk of developing pressure ulcers. In an experimental design, results reported 0.9 percent chance of developing pressure ulcers under CBPM and 4.8 percent chance without application of CBPM. The evidence identifies the guidelines’ objective for prevention and management of pressure ulcers but with inefficiency. While the guidelines identify need for repositioning in order to alleviate pressure, it fails to provide an approach for accurate determination of pressure levels for positioning. This means t hat according to the guidelines, positioning may be done when pressure is less than the threshold for causing or worsening pressure ulcers. Similarly, pressure at some point may exceed the threshold level but may not be detected for repositioning. The discrepancy between the guidelines and practice suggest inefficiency in prevention of pressure ulcers, under the guidelines, and this can be inferred to management. Nurses can resolve this by using technology to identify real time pressure at different points of a patient’s body. With such an approach, repositioning can be effective in preventing pressure ulcers and in offloading pressure from affected regions to facilitate recovery. In addition to accurate monitoring of pressure, nurses can also collaborate with physicians and surgeons to promote surgical intervention for management of pressure ulcers (Giaquinto-Cilliers, 2014). This can facilitate

Persuasive Presentations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Persuasive Presentations - Essay Example For most writers, that's presenting information, usually to an audience that's about as knowledgeable on the subject as we are. (Anthony 45-57) For presentations, that's a lethal combination. Factual information presented at a high level of technical expertise not only doesn't persuade, but may actually alienate the reader. For thousands of years, people have tried to figure out the best way to persuade other people to do things. We know that persuasion has been the subject of serious study since the days of classical Greece. Plato worried about the rhapsodes' ability to appeal to citizens' emotions and persuade them to do things that were not in the best of interest of the city or themselves. And Aristotle wrote one of the great treatises on persuasion. (Rasmussen 23-36) Among the Romans the ability to persuade was considered a hallmark of responsible citizenship. Since World War II, researchers have worked particularly hard to identify the elements of persuasion. Why They have some practical motives: improving advertising and marketing campaigns, motivating audiences, influencing the electorate, girding consumers and voters against propaganda, understanding the dynamics of brainwashing, and- yes- writing better presentations. From all this speculation and research, four elements have consistently bee n a vital part of nearly every theory of persuasion: the message, the receiver, the channel, and the source. (Daley 79-83) Giving them some consideration will give us a deeper understanding of the process of persuasion. Message The impact of your message depends in part on whether the receiver is receptive to it to begin with. If the evidence or logic in a particular persuasive message is in line with the audience's basic values, beliefs, or biases, the receiver is more likely to accept it and modify his or her attitudes accordingly. If the evidence runs counter to the receiver's basic beliefs, persuasion is far less likely to occur. Thus, the way you frame your message with regard to your audience's preferences is critical. That may seem circular: You can persuade people to accept only the things they already accept or to do the things they already want to do. But that's not quite what's going on here. (Holcombe 112-24) There is a difference between a belief and an attitude. Someone may issue an RFP for new equipment because he or she believes that production efficiency can be improved by using more modern technology. If you can base your presentation on the same belief and then demonstrate how your equipm ent will introduce labor-saving enhancements, the receiver's attitude toward you as the most suitable vendor will change in a positive way. However, if you send out a canned presentation, one that emphasizes the ruggedness and durability of your machines, instead of their impact on production efficiency, you will be not be addressing the client's basic belief. (Anthony 45-57) As a result, you may not persuade him or her to choose you. This is the fundamental problem in submitting boilerplate presentations. Because customers vary widely in their beliefs and values, using the same text for everybody guarantees that a large percentage of them will find your message irrelevant or unconvincing. Receiver The receiver is a vital component of

Brazil Business Process Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Brazil Business Process - Research Paper Example The close relationship is one of the crucial success elements in doing business in Brazil. This paper explores business practices in Brazil, negotiation process and how business etiquette is influenced by the Brazilian culture. Business Practices in Brazil Personal relationships define how Brazilians do business. For someone to do business successfully in Brazil, he or she must first develop the close relationship with a Brazilian within the industry in which he or she wants to operate. The Brazilian contact will then create a link with other important people for the prosperity of the business. Brazilians strongly value family relationships. As such, many Brazilians have the tendency of working for one company. This is because Brazilians prefer to engage in business with those whom they know and trust. Therefore, one must be dedicated to allocating long-term resources, like time and money, in building strong relationships in Brazil in order to create a successful business. Also, in m any cities in Brazil, work begins at 8:30 am and runs up to 5:00 pm. In between, there is usually an hour or two for lunch break. Businesses usually open at 9:00 am to 7:00 pm from Monday to Friday. On Saturday, businesses open at 9:00 am and close at 1:00 pm. However, giant business enterprises may remain open for relatively long hours. In most cases, it is crucial to plan business arrangements two or three weeks prior and authenticate the appointments before and on arrival in Brazil. When scheduling time for the appointments, it is usually advisable to have time allowance between the appointments in case they last longer than expected. Brazilians embrace socializing and passing time with one another. This usually happens during mid-morning tea or coffee breaks and lunch periods. Coffee is usually served before or as meetings progress. Brazilians are usually concerned about dressing, which demands that a person must dress smartly and in a conservative manner (Lee 319). In many case s, Brazilian companies tend to have tall organizational structures. Top executives of the companies make most organizational decisions. Top managerial positions tend to be male-dominated. However, women are currently gaining access to executive roles in some companies. Brazilian business is also influenced by class differences, which is prevalent in both Brazilian societal and business cultures. Economic status and salaries paid to individuals determine the class to which an individual belongs. There are legislations against discrimination and existing class differences in business are faint. Negotiation Process Attitudes and Styles Relationships form a crucial part of negotiation processes in Brazil. Brazilians frequently use distributive as well as contingency bargaining. The buyer is usually perceived to be in a superior position in the negotiation, but both parties (buyer and seller) have the duty to reach a consensus. The main focus is usually on commitments of business partner s and long-term benefits (Jain 420). Competitive negotiation style is a common characteristic of Brazilian negotiations and Brazilians are often insistent negotiators. Proposals should reflect benefits to both parties to a negotiation and none of the negotiating members should manifest intent to win over the other in a negative approach.

Hotel Rwanda - The Rwandan Genocide Essay Example for Free

Hotel Rwanda The Rwandan Genocide Essay Hotel Rwanda is a film about the genocide that transpired within the premises of the city of Kigali, the heart of Rwanda during the year 1994. This evil act lasted for 100 days killing thousands of innocent lives of Rwandan men, women and children. But in the film, it did not focus on the genocide. Instead, it shed a light on the heroic and courageous deed of one ordinary man in an effort to save the lives of some of his countrymen. In the movie, almost all of the aspects of the genocide were tackled including the powerlessness of the United Nations to put a stop to the violent killings perpetrated by the Rwandan government and the Hutu rebels against the Tutsis. This was very much evident when the character of Dan Cheadle was promised by the UN Colonel that he, his family and all the refugees at the Milles Collines will be rescued. But when the colonel had a talk with another UN officer, the plan seemed to have changed. The colonel explained that only foreign nationals were allowed to leave Rwanda. Only a small number of troops were instructed to uphold peacekeeping and not peacemaking meaning they were not allowed to shoot at anyone even if they commit violent actions. More so, the minimal involvement of the international organizations and their eventual negligence over the escalating killings in Rwanda played a pivotal role in the increased deaths of thousands of people. Instead of helping the Tutsis to take refuge to a safer place in neighboring countries, these organizations decided not to get involve because of the misconception that nothing can restore the peace and order in an anarchic setting. Moreover in the movie, a Red Cross worker drew some attention because of how she showed her bravery by setting aside her fears and her own welfare just to save a few people from being mercilessly killed by the Hutus. Some aid workers decided to stay in order to help while others chose to flee in order to protect their welfare. Overall, the movie generated an accurate depiction of the Rwandan genocide. However, some controversial issues were downplayed like the role of the French in the uprising and arming of the Hutu rebels. After the genocide, some reports have surfaced that implicated a few French politicians and the French military with this tragic incident. According to the results of the findings of an â€Å"Independent Rwandan Commission,† the French government was â€Å"aware of preparations for the genocide and helped train the ethnic Hutu militia perpetrators. The report included that France provided the Hutus with â€Å"political, military, diplomatic and logistical support. † For almost 2 years, the commission had gathered data and interviewed several survivors. All the information that had been obtained, served as testimonies to the participation of the French government in the killing of almost 800,000 civilians in the span of 100 days (BBC, 2008). But the French vehemently refu ted the accusations. In their defense, they stated that the allegations were biased because the commission has only one thing in mind and that is to prove that the French are guilty. The â€Å"French Foreign Ministry said â€Å"there is no surprise in the conclusions of the commission given its mission† (CNN, 2008). Aside from this, the film also failed to include the admission of the United Nations of its failure to prevent the genocide. But for the UN, this became a learning experience. They realized that people should not be neglected specifically in times of dire need when lives are at stake (BBC, 2000). Given this new angle in the Rwandan genocide, it should have been also portrayed in the movie. This would have given viewers more accurate representation of what really happened in Rwanda in April 1994. Also, this would have been a chance for the whole world to determine who the real culprits were in one of the worst humanitarian crisis of the 20th century. More so, these events could have provided a comprehensive outlook on how humans are capable of doing horrendous and brutal acts just to have power and control.

Literature Review On Leadership Styles On Stress Outcomes Management Essay

Literature Review On Leadership Styles On Stress Outcomes Management Essay The leaders leadership styles play a very important role in achieving goals of the organization. The leaders ability to adapt to internal and external environment changes and working with followers together is the key to success. Moreover, I should mention that many causal modeling revealed that leadership style has a direct, rather than indirect, effect on task performance. Highly complex and stress-laden workplaces present challenges to organizational leaders as they are faced with the task of managing the workforce while concurrently maintaining commitment and morale. Leaders can often be in the middle source of stress among employees in the workplace (Basch Fisher, 2000; Sosik Godshalk, 2000). As the distinctiveness of work changes, so must change the roles and tactics of all leaders. The Leader promote supportive relationships, elicit motivation along with assistants/followers, make possible more positive and less negative emotions along with assistants, and stimulate more kind evaluations of stressful tasks among assistants may be more effective than the more conventional leaders who usually tend toward task-directive methods. These leadership elements based on relation, motivation, and emotion are customary with transformational leadership styles (Bass, 1998; Yukl, 1998). Despite a considerable body of literature suggests that leaders based on transformational are effective, there is a small number of experimental research that has discovered how transformational leaders may impact subordinates/followers during stressful business deals. Taking into above mentioned I am to deal with transformational and transactional leadership styles their influence on different subordinate including emotional and motivational experiences. The effects of leadership style based on stressful task performance were examined (by Joseph B.Lyons, Tamara R.Schneider 2009) as potential mediators, further. The Nature of Leadership and Job Stress 2.1 Leadership Style In the field of organizational behavior the leadership is really an important subject. Leadership is one with the most dynamic effects during individual and organizational interaction. In other words, whether a management is able to execute collaborated effort depends on leadership capability. The excellent leader is not only inspires followers potential to improve efficiency and also meet their requirements in the process of achieving organizational goals. According to Stogdill (1957) leadership as the individual behavior to guide a group to achieve the common target. In latter days, Richards Engle (1986) defined leadership as about establishment of vision, value and creation of environment so that the objective can be accomplished. Definitions on leadership defined by selected authors were summarized into table 1. Year Author Definition of Leadership 1957 Hemphill Coons Leadership is the individual behavior to guide a group to achieve the common target. 1957 Stogdill Leadership is an influential activity to others or organization to achieve the target set by the leader. 1969 Bowers Leadership is an activity process of interpersonal relationship; others behavior is influenced through this process to achieve the set target. 1977 Davis Leadership means persuasion on others to enthusiastically chase for certain target. 1982 Morphet, Johns Reller Leadership means, in the social system, the individual action, behavior, faith and target are influenced by the others under volunteer cooperation. 1986 Richards Engle Leadership is about establishment of vision, value and creation of environment so that the objective can be accomplished. 1990 Sergiovanni Leadership means the leader satisfies the staffs demand by use of consultation, negotiation and compromise so that the staff trades his work for rewards. 1990 Jacobs Jaques Leadership helps others to strive and to enhance aspiration to achieve the target. 1993 Robbins Leadership is the ability to influence the group to achieve the target. 1994 Yukl Leadership is the process of influence on the subordinate, in which the subordinate is inspired to achieve the target, the group is maintained in cooperation, and the established mission is accomplished, and the support from external group is obtained. 2001 Northouse Leadership is exchanged relationship between leader and subordinate. 2003 Fry Leadership means use of leading strategy to offer inspiring motive and to enhance the staffs potential for growth and development. Table 1: Definition of Leadership After reviewing studies on leadership theory conducted in the past, it is generally divided into four periods: Traits theory in 1930s It focuses on the innate leadership qualities and competence. These innate qualities are not found in others. The so-called quality can be divided into physiological and mental aspects. The physiological aspect includes: height, weight, looks, and vigor while the mental aspect includes intelligence, confidence, and aggressiveness etc. Stogdill (1948) proposed twelve leadership related studies and was considered as representative of this period. Behavioral theory from late 1940s to late 1960s It believes that a leader will be able to achieve ideal organizational efficiency if he demonstrates effective leadership behaviors. These leadership behaviors may be trained or learned through experience. Actual behavior or leadership styles are emphasized. Representative research is conducted in Ohio State University. Ohio State University proposed considerationand initiating structure of leadership behaviors. Consideration is a behavior that focuses on strengthening relationship with subordinates based on their needs and perceptions, while initiating structure is a behavior that focuses on subordinate performance in goal accomplishment. Contingency theory in late 1960s: This theory states that there is no set of optimum leadership model in this world and that it depends on the situation encountered. Situational leadership theory began its development subsequently. It states that leaders need to adopt the most optimum leadership style based on different organizational situations. Among which, Fiedlers contingency theory (1967) is most well-known. Contemporary leadership theory since 1970s: The viewpoint of contemporary leadership theory states that leadership is a type of interactive process with the environment. Bass Avolio (1990) proposed transactional leadership and transformation leadership : Transactional leadership: Encouraging subordinates through incentive establishment. In other words, incentive elicits work performance. Transactional leadership is the basis for most leadership theories. It focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and the subordinate (Fry, 2003 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ºNorthouse, 2001); transformation leadershipto enhance staffs trust and respect for leader by altering intrinsic work value and faith of staff at the same time in order to elicit work capabilities. Because charisma is viewed as an essential element, transformation leader provides incentives for subordinates, enhance subordinate potential and development. (Fry, 2003); and Charismatic leadership theory refers to the followers perception toward certain behaviors of the leader as being heroic or extraordinary. 2.2. Personality Charateristics Personality characteristic means ones psychological and physical phenomenon. At different time and condition, it adapts to different environment by unique behavioral mode and thinking method. Friedman Rosenman (1959) categorize personality characteristics into type A and B. Type A shows exuberant ambition and aggression. Type B has more patience and pays less attention to competition and sense of achievement. Definitions of personality characteristic were summarized as shown into table 2. Year Author Definition of Personality Characteristic 1959 Guilford Personality characteristic is a combination of individual trait and property, which generates a lasting and special characteristic different from the others. 1961 Allport Personality means dynamic behavior from psychological and physical aspect to adapt to the environment. 1970 Pervin Personality represents structure and dynamics from reaction to the environment. 1972 Scott Mitchell Personality is formed from accumulation of psychological growth and development. 1998 Robbins Personality is ones reaction to the others and consequence of interaction with others. 1985 Lee Personality characteristic means psychological attributes of affection and thought among people; its also a specific and lasting behavioral pattern. 1997 Lu The formation of personality is affected by gene, culture, environment, and social factor. Table 2 Definitions of Personality Characteristic 2.3. Empirical Studies The verification researches made by the domestic and foreign scholars on leadership, job stress, personality characteristic and turnover intention are described as follows: In research of leader behavior and job stress, Fleishman (1964) found that consideration in the leader behavior has negative connection with the job stress, while the initiating structure is positively connected with job stress; In research of leader behavior and turnover intention, Fleishman Harris (1962) in the study of the influence of various leadership types on turnover rate and complaint rate found that consideration for the subordinates is negatively connected with the turnover, while the initiating structure is positively connected with turnover; In research of job stress and turnover intention, Parasuraman Alutto (1984) in the research on 217 employees at the food manufacturing company indicated that job stress had positive connection with turnover intention; In research of personality characteristics and job stress, Chang (1998) chose employees of Taiwan Sugar Company as research subject and indicated that those with type A personality characteristic had higher perception of job stress and shew more physical and psychological discomfort reactions; In research of personality characteristics and turnover intention, Chang (2003) released 260 questionnaires to 11 schools and revealed that personality characteristics had no significant impact on turnover intention. The relevant empirical researches were listed in table 3. Author Year Sample Empirical Result Hsu 1986 222 operators of China Steel Company. In leadership method, consideration has significantly negative connection with job stress, but the initiating structure has apparently positive connection with job stress. For overall , leadership is negatively connected with job stress. Huang 1984 207 engineers of a RD institute Consideration leadership has negative connection with turnover. Ke 1989 217 employees of 105 companies In leader behavior, consideration has negative connection with turnover intention and the initiating structure is negatively connected with turnover intention. Parasuraman Alutto 1984 217 employees of food manufacturing company Job stress has significantly positive connection with turnover intention. Tzeng 1994 Employees of 12 five-star hotels in Taipei Job stress is positively connected with turnover intention. Tzeng 2001 180 high-tech industry and 255 traditional industry People with A-type personality characteristics perceive job stress more serious while, those who with B-type perceive the least. Chang 1998 All inland employees of Taiwan Sugar Company People with more A-type personality characteristics perceive higher extent of job stress and also higher improper reaction physically and psychologically. Wang 1990 Employees from 95 gas stations at 23 cities People with A-type personality characteristics have significantly higher job stress than those of people with B-type. Chiu 1994 2,400 employees of Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. People with A-type personality characteristics perceive more anxiety, disconsolation, low self-respect than those people with B-type, yet the overall job stress does not reach significant level. Chang 2003 260 contractual personnel at 11 schools The research result finds that personality characteristics has no evident influence on turnover intention. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office The research result indicates no significant variance between male and female on job stress. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office Age is positively connected with job stress. Cheng 1999 200 female operators of wafer manufacturer in Hsinchu Industrial Zone Age has significantly positive connection with turnover intention. Cheng 1994 333 bus drivers in Taipei Single people feel higher job stress than the married ones. Chen 1997 Employees of enterprises in mid of Taiwan Married people perceive more disconsolate job stress than single ones. Cheng 1999 200 female operators of wafer manufacturer in Hsinchu Industrial Zone Turnover intention of single people is higher than that of married ones. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office The research found turnover intention difference between female and male is not evident. Chuang 2000 Research of job stress and job satisfaction on 174 high-tech employees Workers seniority has positive connection with job stress. Cheng 1994 333 bus drivers in Taipei Workers seniority has negative connection with job stress. Table 3 Empirical Research 2.4. Job Stress Job stress means improper occupational stress or burden that badly affects the psychological and physical condition of the worker himself (Kroes, 1974). Peng (1998) states that psychological stress is neither stimulus nor reaction but a handling method or relationship; it is the interaction between the individual and the environment, which gains or consumes resources of human behavior and endangers the individual health. When the individual feels job stress, it usually comes along with following symptoms: Psychological aspect passive, disconsolate, anxious and anger; physical aspect imbalance incretion, headache, sleepless and disturbed; Behavioral aspect change of living behavior, decrease of job involvement, absence from work, and turnover. The definitions of various authors were summarized in table 4. Year Author Definition of Job Stress 1956 Seley Stress means uncertain reaction of the body to demand, and also basic demand from internal or external environment, or reaction result against threat of balance condition. 1971 French Stress is the consequence that an individuals ability or skills fail to coordinate with the job or the job environment cannot satisfy the individual demand. 1974 Kroes Stress is improper occupational pressure or burden which badly affects the psychological and physical condition of the worker himself. 1978 Beehr Newman Stress is the change that drives the worker from normal psychological and physical condition. 1980 Ivancevich Matteson Stress is some adaptive reaction, a consequence of special psychological or physical demand from the event, and such reaction takes personal character as intermediary. 1984 Fleming et al. Stress is a conceptualized process and contains ones recognition and reaction to danger or threat. 1985 Jamal Stress is ones reaction against threat in the working environment. 1998 Peng The psychology claims that job stress is neither stimulus nor reaction but some handling method or relationship. Table 4 Definition of Job Stress 3.0. The effects of leadership style on stress outcomes. Transactional versus Transformational Leadership. 3.1. Transactional Leadership Basss (1998) Very many Leadership Model discusses 3 leadership styles:1: transactional, 2:laissez-faire, and 3:transformational. A fundamental feature of transactional leadership is the social exchange procedure. There are 3 appearances of transactional leadership: contingent reward, management by exception-active, and management by exception-passive. Contingent reward leadership engrosses establishing worker expectancies of rewards (e.g., financial compensation or public praise) for good acting. Management by exception-active leadership is distinguished by actively watching subordinate departures from performance standards. These leaders inspire subordinates by encouraging them to preserve established performance standards and avoid making errors. I case performance differences are detected, the leader will get involved and make the compulsory corrections. Vice versa to the active form, passive management by exception leaders do not actively monitor performance deviations but rather wait to be notified of performance deviations. After that upon recognition of a performance departure, the leader will intervene. My literature review focuses only on the active form of management by exception, and all future suggestions to management by exception leadership are in orientation to the active structure of management by exception. Ghee Soon Lim, (2004) transactional leaders focus on the present and do well at keeping the organization running smoothly and efficiently. They are good at traditional management functions such as planning and budgeting and generally focus on the impersonal aspects of job performance. Transactional leaders can be quite effective. By clarifying expectations, leaders help build followers confidence. In addition, satisfying the needs of subordinates may improve productivity and morale. Transactional leaders maintain stability within the organization rather than promote change. Transactional skills are important for all leaders. In todays world, where organizational success often depends on continuous change, effective leaders also use a different approach. 3.2. Transformational Leadership Comparing with transactional leaders, transformational leaders request to the motivational, emotional, and developmental needs of their followers (Bass, 1998). Transformational leadership is distinguished by four elements: inspirational motivation (the ability to naturally easily motivate and request to someones emotions), idealized influence (the ability to obtain respect from others), individualized support (the ability to support followers sole developmental needs), and intellectual stimulation (the ability to stimulate followers desire to learn and develop) (Bass, 1998). Transformational leaders give power to employees through emotional requests (Yukl, 1998) and may alter the frame stressful situations as chances for growth at the same time as providing the necessary maintain throughout the performance procedure (Bass, 1998; Sosik Godshalk, 2000). Research has displayed that transformational leaders are successful leaders (Lowe, Kroeck, Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, Mackenzie Bommer, 1996; Yammarino, Spangler Bass, 1993). On the other hand, most leadership study has used correlation data to scan how certain leadership styles relate to act and other minor variables, as a result numerous researchers called for increased use of testing in leadership research (Brown Lord, 1999; Kirkpatrick Locke, 1996). There are some empirical study where leadership styles (notably charismatic styles) have been operated (Cherulnik, Donley, 2001; Bono Ilies, 2006), so far few studies have tested whether those manipulations effect in changes in objective task performance. Because of their higher visioning, support, and potential for alter the framing of stressful situations as chances, it is expected that transformational leaders will improve followers task performance throughout stressful tasks. 3.3. Evaluation transformational and transactional leadership styles and their influence on individuals performance on a stressful task. In my literature review I tried to evaluate whether transformational or transactional leadership style impacts more positively individuals performance on a stressful tasks and overall followers performance. First of all analyzing transformational and transactional leadership styles, basically Leadership style may determine the effectiveness of customer service training and deployment. Tichy and Devanna (1986) suggest that both transformational and transactional leadership are both effective leadership styles. Tosi (1982) also agrees. Transactional leaders lead to low follower satisfaction, while encouraging maintenance of the status quo (Bass et al., 1987). Likewise, transactional leaders find success by focusing on task-oriented exchange relationships to achieve success in attaining goals. Transformational leaders lead change-usually on greater levels of the organization and follower of transformational leaders are generally more committed and dedicated to the leader and goals of the organization. (Bass, 1985; Tichy Devanna, 1986). Transformational leaders articulate a vision for a future of their organization, while at the same time intellectually stimulate subordinates and focus on differences among people (Yammarino Bass, 1990). Furthermore, transformational leadership is based on the personal values, beliefs, and qualities of the leader rather than on an exchange process between leaders and followers. In addition transformational leadership differs from transactional leadership in some areas. Firstly, Transformational leadership develops followers into leaders, means followers are given greater freedom to control their own behavior. Transformational leadership rallies people around a mission and defines the boundaries within which followers can operate in relative freedom to accomplish organizational goals. Secondly, transformational leader pays attention to each individuals need for growth and development. Therefore, the leader sets examples and assigns tasks not only to meet immediate needs but also to elevate followers needs and abilities to higher level and link them to the organizations mission. Transformational leaders change followers so that they are empowered to change the organization. Thirdly, transformational leaders motivate people to do more than originally expected. Followers admire these leaders, want to identify with them, and have a high degree of trust in them. Transformational leaders motivates people not just to follow the leader personally but also to believe in the need for change and be willing to make personal sacrifices for the greater purpose. Fourthly, the most significant role of the transformational leader may be to find a vision for the organization that is significantly better than the old one and to enlist others in sharing the dream. Change can occur only when people have a sense of purpose as well as a desirable picture of where the organization is going. Without vision, there can be no transformation. Whereas transactional leaders promote stability, transformational leaders create significant change in followers as well as in organizations. Leaders can learn to be transformational as well as transactional. Effective leaders exhibit both transactional and transformational leadership patterns. They accentuate not only their abilities to build a vision and empower and energize others, but also the transactional skills of designing structures, control systems, and reward systems that can help people achieve the vision.(Marfred F.R. Kets De Vries, 1998) 4.0. Conclusion We live in an period of time where leadership symbolizes a emotional, developmental, and motivational part of organizational achievement; thats why a range of subordinate results/outcomes are important things to consider when we evaluate leadership successfulness. Having looked thoroughly through all the studies examined to evaluate whether transformational or transactional leadership styles impacts positively on individuals performances on a stressful task, and also when taking into account social support, efficiency beliefs, negative emotions. For example, One of this kind of experimental examine was held and that experiment took part 240 (two hindered forty) participants, they are watched video instructions for a stressful task. The experimental study provided evidence that transformational leadership is advantageous not only for performance, but also when considering effectiveness beliefs, social support, stress assessments, and negative emotions. Leaders of the future are encountered/faced with heavy challenges. Leaders must be clever at influencing followers motivational, emotional, and developmental needs in the stressful circumstance of present work. This kind of changes in the focus of modern leadership successfulness requires that leadership explorers go after suit and need consider a wider range of unpredictable outcomes in leadership research. In addition I would like also add that Transformational leaders, with their excellent arsenal of inspirational motivation, Individualized support, idealized influence and intellectual stimulation have to meet these challenges of in our day and those of the upcoming future.

Learning about spelling strategy

Learning about spelling strategy Introduction Spelling strategies in the primary curriculum have consistently provoked criticism and debate amongst teachers, Ofsted and the Government.[1] Standards continue to decline highlighting that the present strategy is failing.[2] A central criticism is that teachers do not have the necessary knowledge of the relationship between word structure and spelling, and rely on techniques they learnt at school, specifically the use of memorized spelling tests. (Spear-Swerling, Brucker Alfano 2005). The major concerns are that this approach hinders the teachers ability to identify the correct spelling instructional level of individual pupils, and produces a trend where pupils who score high in tests will subsequently misspell the same words during written exercises; this is the case at my chosen school.[3] The Key Stage 2 curriculum is similarly criticized both at the school and in general, because it fails to consistently describe how word lists are selected or base selection on current linguistic spelling principles and developmental research. (Scott 2007). This may or may not be developmentally appropriate for the class as a whole or for individual pupils, especially in the area of creative writing (Stone et al. 2005 p662). It will be the purpose of this study to analyse and evaluate current theories and case studies for teaching spelling and writing at Key Stage 2 that could be utilized by the school. There are three dominant strands to teaching that will be investigated here, Developmental Stage Theory, Incidental Inventive Spelling theory and the Multi-sensory approach.[4] Spelling Strategies: An Investigation Developmental Stage Theory identifies 5 stages of spelling development; Prephonetic, Phonetic, Patterns with Words, Syllable Juncture and Meaning-Derivation. (Henderson in Bear et al. 2004).[5] Studies have discovered that pupils who experience significant difficulty with spelling will still follow the same developmental course as other pupils, but at a slower pace. (Worthy Invernizzi 1990). The approach therefore promotes a move away from memorization skills to supporting a pupils natural developing awareness of language with practice in wide reading and writing, and be based on the pupils developmental level as opposed to unitary placement in the grade level based spelling book. (Schlagel 2002 p.47). A developmental spelling analysis (DSA) such as the Qualitative Inventory of Word Knowledge (QIWK) technique is used to initially identify and analyse a pupils current stage through scoring, inventive spellings and error patterns relating to writing and word sorting activities. Word sorts of increasingly difficult levels using words from the 5 DTS stages are used because they provide an interactive means of helping pupils understand spelling concepts on an increasingly abstract level (Bear et al. 2004). Subsequent teaching, spelling and writing exercises are tailored to both stage and development strategies by focusing on fewer words in word sorts at a time, teaching spelling patterns and providing numerous practice writing sessions and self/peer review strategies.[6] Together they allow for a systematic observation of higher-level processes and improve metacognitive abilities. (Seifert-Kessell in Fresch 2000). This approach moves away from the reliance of pupil memorization of words that is said to produce effective performance in spelling tests but poor performance in writing, and over time, as pupils forget the words they have memorized. (Seifert-Kessell in Fresch 2000) The case study Beyond Memorisation, Lists and Trial Tests by Hillal Scharer is an excellent example of the DTS process. Using QIWK teachers were able to expand their understanding of KS1 KS2 equivalent pupils as spellers. One teacher discovered that her class ability ranged from levels 2-8 on the QIWK scale, another commented I need to get better at recognizing what levels they are at. It only makes sense that if kids are at different reading levels, they will be at different levels in their spelling. I dont know why I didnt recognize this before. (Hilal Scharer 1993). The strategy does not just allow for effective grouping and targeted learning at the instructional level, it also provides a detailed method for qualitative data analysis in pupil errors over time. One teacher documented a concern that score levels had not improved between May and January, however, when the error data was analysed using the QIWK method she discovered that over half were moving from the letter name stage to the within-word stagethis is so much more pleasant, you can see growth, what more could you ask for? (Hillal Scharer 1993). A third and perhaps the most significant development was that teachers noticed changes in spelling errors in written assignments. Rather than circling errors they cross-referenced with a QIWK analysis and systematically documented them. This inferred weekly selections of word lists that were chosen from misspelled written work rather than the curriculum textbooks. This facilitated mini-spelling lessons linked to written work through observed errors and provided an environment for coaching in self-editing and peer editing strategies using QIWK word sorts as a base. Peer marking and discussions have, themselves, provided an additional strategy here that has been documented to benefit pupils learning. By grouping pupils of similar spelling ability they learn at the same pace, feel empowered and by judging the work of others, students gain insight into their own performance (and language)peer and self-assessment help pupils develop the ability to make judgments, a necessary skills for le arning.'( Brown, Rust Gibbs 1994). It will be seen throughout this chapter that peer work and assessment strategies lend themselves to the majority of spelling strategies discussed, this will be discussed in more depth in the conclusion. The headteacher summarized; theres been a move away from memorization activities to active tasks such as creative writing, word hunts and word study notebooks (this) extends and records development of word knowledge. (Hillal Scharer 1993). All the teachers involved in the study stated they would continue but required support strategies from the school to implement, this a recurring theme for all researched case studies and will be therefore be discussed in the conclusion. A subsequent developmental case study entitled Using Think-Alouds During Word Sorts (Fresch 2000) encouraged KS2 level pupils to put your brain in your throat and tell us what you are thinkingkeep talking. The study was determined to open a window into the decision-making process because information stored in the short-term memory is vocalized and caters for systematic observations of higher-level processes. (Olson, Duffy Mack in Fresch 2000). The results showed that think-alouds enable pupils to demonstrate the extent to which they rely on auditory or visual informationstudents develop knowledge about language through active engagement. (Fresch 2000). [7] This in turn can be incorporated into the strategies pupils use while writing; rather than rely on writing and proof reading, the pupils can incorporate a vocal strategy linked to their experience of vocalizing words during DST word sort exercises. While Stage Theory provides a basic template for describing student growth in spelling and writing it is criticized for a repeated emphasis of placing pupils in concrete groups with the assumption pupils progress sequentially without moving back and forth when they encounter unfamiliar words. (Scott 2007). Studies by Siegler (1995) and Varnhagen (1997) have identified an Overlapping Wave Theory that incorporate stage development but allow for fluid movement between stages as they develop. This theory believes pupils possess and are able to use knowledge of phonology, orthography and morphology from an early age, but rely more strongly on strategies at different points in time. (Kwong Varnhagen 2005). Varnhagens case study examined pupil spelling for a KS 1-2 equivalent and identified the same strategies throughout.[8] Their conclusion was that spelling progressed from errors representing the phonetic stage directly to correct spelling. (Scott 2007). The authors themselves are unsure of how this would compliment writing strategies but identify a link to the two strategies that would allow for a better understanding of spelling stage development that would influence spelling strategies as a whole. (Kwong Varnhagen 2005 p.154). In opposition to DST is the Incidental Inventive Spelling approach developed by Montessori (1964) and Chomsky (1979). They observed that children write from an early age and in some cases before they begin to read. They inferred that an invented spelling approach to writing benefits learning because children learn best if they construct a system of their own rather than having it handed to them by an adult.'(Chomsky in Metasala Ehri 1998 p.300). Treimann (1993) echoed Chomsky and Montessori by conducting a year long study where pupils used invented spelling in their writing, then recopying it with standard spelling and finally using for reading practice. It was discovered that the pupils spelling and writing both improved. (Treimann in Metasala Ehri 1998). In a case study by Clarke (1988) pupils at an early KS2 level using inventive spelling out performed fellow pupils in two separate spelling tests, one involving low-frequency words. These results suggest encouraging children to invent spelling while engaged in creative writing helps them to appreciate language comprehension. (Clarke in Metasala Ehri 1998 p.305). Ehri continues to argue that it does not hurt children to misspell words and they do not become locked into misspelling behaviour. An additional discovery was that pupils often do not proof read their own writing and even when they do it takes multiple readings to learn its spelling. By using inventive spelling techniques the inventive group correctly spelled a larger variety of words than the control group. (Metasala Ehri 1998 p.305). Further studies by Ehri, Gibbs and Underwood (1988) and Bradley and King (1992) discovered that pupils beginning Key Stage 2 who were exposed to inventive spelling techniques were more accura te than their counterparts. (Metasala Ehri 1998). Although pupils in these studies were beginning a Key Stage 2 level of education the strength of the study focuses on the ability of pupils to maintain ownership of their creative writing. The teacher remains a facilitator rather than a director. Read (1986) believes writing is part of a childs play with language and the specific activities must grow out of a childs interestshe is likely to direct herself rather than march to an adult drummer. (Read 1986 p.125). The inventive studies have highlighted two areas of interest, firstly is the level of play pupils maintain through writing which could lead to better performance. A study by Gerritz in Read confirms that there was a distinct improvement in pupils writing ability. They were clearly at ease and eager to write. They didnt show any more bad spelling habits than had been experienced throughout years of teaching. (Gerritz in Read 1986 p.125). An enjoyment of writing is perhaps viewed as secondary to spelling performance in the KS 2 strategy and there could be a link between poor spelling performance in writing and the rigidity of spelling strategies. Secondly, the studies have highlighted the in-ability of pupils at this level to identify spelling mistakes in writing. A possible link could be made to the peer-support strategies outlined in the DST studies where-by pupils creatively write first and then, together in QIWK determined groups, analyse the mistakes. There is a third approach relating to a learning styles strategy. Though a combination of neurology, Gardners multiple intelligence and subsequent learning styles theories there are numerous teaching strategies that focus on multi-sensory learning techniques that can build on the traditional spelling lessons. Using neurological evidence Ott (2007) suggests a distinction between dominant left and right brain learning styles. Left brain learners could focus on speech and language through learning word patterns through sound and rhyme, using mnemonics in analysis, logic and language skills, counting syllables and using word derivatives.[9] Right brain learners would focus on visual and spatial skills such as clapping to count syllables, using colour when they identify words, using a computer keyboard and graphic packages, and using mnemonics with illustrations.[10] Gardners theory of multiple intelligences expounds the techniques to include three dominant learning styles that can be incorporated into the classroom.[11] Visual learners could benefit from learning to spell through images, diagrams, mindmaps, media and spelling through analogy and word patterns. The traditional Fernald Method of pronunciation, identification, the tracing of difficult spellings, and writing from memory would especially suite these types of learners. (Ott 2007). Auditory learners could benefit from listening, song, poem, music, rhythm and oral testing. This directly relates to The Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS) method that involves pupils sounding out letters, whilst an other pupil asks them to give the letter names as he/she spells the word. Although a basic phonographic technique there is potential for auditory learners to benefit. (Westwood 2005). There is an opportunity to combine with the ARROW method (Aural-Read-Response-Aural-Written). The pupil listens to a recording of single words while simultaneously reading the same words. Oral and written responses via testing allow for a multi-sensory approach to learning words that enhance the traditional memorization technique with a better-suited learning style. (Westwood 2005). Kinesthetic learners could utilise note-taking and physical activities such as model building and play to further enhance the learning experience. (Ott 2007). Although there is a lack of definite case studies relat ing these methods to the relationship of spelling and writing, they do provide a framework for multi-sensory learning that have the potential to be incorporated into the other methods discussed. Pupils (and teachers) could benefit from the awareness of their learning styles and the multi-faceted approaches to learning offered here. The Directed Spelling Thinking Activity (DSTA) developed by Dr Zutell (1989-1991) provides a detailed lesson format utilizing multi-sensory techniques and a process-orientated cycle of instruction that especially suits language learning. (Zutell 1996). This strategy is aimed at systematically connecting to the writing process with a child-centered, active approach to learning.'(Zutell 1996). An initial pretest with contrasting words is given, followed by a group discussion focusing on strategic problem-solving activities. The next day a word sort is initiated that aids pupils to discover the relationships between contrasting word patterns. Throughout the week pupils make connections to their own experiences and take greater control of their learning as they hunt for words, sort words with partners and individually, and use a pupil-chosen selection of practice written activities centered upon identifying patterns and relationships. (Zutell 1996). Word sorts are again utilized providing a link to the DTS strategy. In this case they are based on teacher and student selected single words and multiple sorts of semantic and orthographic definitions. To enhance learning they are sorted both visually and blind, where decisions are made after each word is said, but before it is seen. They are also initiated through group, partner and individual practices to facilitate pupil relationships. The benefits stated here are that pupils notice important features of words being studied, and it can contribute significantly to proofreading abilities. (Zutell Compton 1993). Zutell Compton go to great lengths to describe the positives of word sorting activities. To summarise, they identify the manipulative strengths of movement and rearrangement, the ability to respond to emergent patterns, to facilitate peer support and learning, identify conceptual categories and word memberships and to move beyond individual pronunciation, pattern and meanin g to the interconnectedness of words. Once accuracy is established they can sort on their own and speed sort to ensure internalized, automatic control. (Zutell Compton 1993). Word hunting activities are also identified as effective in creating a sense of ownership in decision-making and to recognize the relevance of what is being studied to their own reading and writing. It is documented to aid the individualization of word lists from the pupils own writing and to the instructional level of the pupil that once more forms a link to the DTS method. (Zutell 2005). Other strategies advised are Flip Folders for independent spelling strategies, specifically the Look-Say-Cover-See strategy discussed earlier in relation to multi-sensory learning. Word Study Notebooks are identified as a writing alternative to the traditional Word Journal because they are conceptually challengingpupils enter words by patterns, such as ch words or vowel-consonant-silent e words. New words and pages are added as new patterns are studies. (Zutell 2005). Games, and specifically board games (i.e. Scrabble), are determined to keep interest high and allow for pupils of all spelling ranges to compete against each other on an equal footing. This provides an anti-thesis to the DTS theory and creates a space for settings and grades to be negotiated in favour of a whole class approach that could build confidence and motivate peer-support. An additional benefit is that pupils must check the accuracy of each others spelling which creates an opportunity for higher learning through an active and fun setting. (Zutell 2005). A final weekly test provides information for both the teacher and for self-evaluation, serves as a guide for journal building, and leads to choices of words for future studies. (Zutell 1996). The benefit of the entire strategy is that it is a child-centered, active, multi-sensored and personalized yet peer-supported strategy that benefits spelling, reading and writing. (Zutell 2005).[12] In addition Zutell claims that this strategy greatly enhances Vygotskys understandings of social engagement by facilitating learning through creative collaboration and learning, mutual appropriation and the enhancement of learning through the zone of proximinal development.'(Zutell 2005). This could be said to be true for any of the group-orientated strategies here pointing to a belief that rote memorization should be exchanged for a creative group approach that facilitates both ownership and peer supporting strategies, especially in creative writing exercises. Conclusion: Considerations for curriculum implementation Any change to teaching practices will have an impact on a myriad of sources. Teachers and subject coordinators will face the challenge of additional training and the procurement of new resources, pupils will require greater initial scaffolding and parents will require educating themselves of the new approach and there may be resistance. This combined effort is traditionally perceived by many teachers as too expensive and time consuming. There are, however, documented strategies that can work. INSET opportunities provide staff with the opportunity to develop new skills and focused teamwork. The subject coordinator can simultaneously create new teaching strategies. Together they can navigate the criticisms that have been documented in the introduction by focusing on learning language structure, perhaps even through the same active techniques as their pupils as they construct the scheme-of-work. During research for this study there were numerous websites identified that provided free lesson-plans and schemes-of-work relating to all methods discussed here, especially the DTS and DSTA. The classroom resources required for creative writing exercises, word sorts, games, folders and word charts, could also be created by the pupils themselves, facilitating coordinated teamwork between Art and English departments. This would allow for an active approach to learning for the pupils and increase a sense of ownership. It also provides a space for simultaneous scaffolding and creative learning across the curriculum, providing a more whole-school approach to spelling in general and the language arts as a whole. The use of free resources and pupil created teaching aids can, therefore, successfully navigate any budgetary requirements. Included in Appendix D is an example of a marking rubric that was designed by a spelling teacher during the move away from memorized spelling tests. She admits the creation of a new rubric was time-consuming but her response to the effort is positive, inspiring and particularly effective in creative writing exercises. (Loeffler 2009). This highlights that committed teachers cannot only achieve success but that there is support available via the Internet. Also included in Appendix E are teacher/parent responses to new marking rubrics and the shift to the DTS method during the case study Beyond Memorisation. The case study exemplifies and clarifies how concerns by both parties were successfully navigated with positive results. There is a particular focus on the impact of a move from traditional weekly grading scores given to parents to a more detailed progressive report that is produced through a combination of DTS and writing strategies. What all of these strategies have discovered is that there are numerous alternatives to the traditionally memorization technique. The DTS, DSTA and Incidental Writing strategies have especially identified working practices that aid the pupil in correct spelling during creative writing exercises. Throughout this research it has become apparent that my chosen school is not an isolated case in the difficulty of producing correct spelling in both tests and creative writing. It is a nationwide problem that clearly identifies that current spelling strategies are not sufficient and that there is a need for more active, creative, multi-sensory teaching techniques and practices within the KS2 curriculum. There is no technique that has been identified as superior, however, throughout this study there were numerous instances where strategies overlap and compensate for each other. It is clear that used together strategically they can enhance both a pupils spelling in all areas and enhance the cr eative writing experience. The additional use of peer-support structures provide a chance for a move away from grading and sets to a whole-class teamwork based learning experience. References Bear, D. Invernizzi, M. Templeton, S. Johnston, F. (2004) Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary and Spelling Instruction: New Jersey: Pearson Education Brown, S., Rust, C. and Gibbs, G. (1994) Involving students in the assessment process, in Strategies for Diversifying Assessments in Higher Education: Oxford: Oxford Centre for Staff Development Claire, J. (2004) 200,000 pupils cannot read at seven. @ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3304750/200000-pupils-cannot-read-at-seven.html Clark, L. (2009) Why Childrens Spelling is Going Downhill @ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-98156/Why-childrens-spelling-going-downhill.html Fresch, M. ((2000/2001) Using think-alouds to analyze decision making during spelling word sorts: Reading Online, 4(6) @ http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=/articles/fresch/index.html Hillal, G. Scharer, P. (1993) Beyond Memorisation, Lists and Trial Tests: Exploring the Influence of Teacher Knowledge of Developmental Spelling on Pedagogical Decisions. @ http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true_ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED364870ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=noaccno=ED364870 Hinds, D. (2004) SATS thrown back over Hadrians wall @ http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=2054617 Kwong, T. Varnhagen, C. (2005) Strategy Development and Learning to Spell New Words: Developmental Psychology No.41 pp.148-159 @ literacyencyclopedia.ca/index.php?fa=items.show228 Loeffler, K. (2009) No More Friday Spelling Tests: Council for Exceptional Children @ www.teachingld.org/pdf/teaching_how-tos/spelling_tests.pdf Metsala, J. Ehri, L. (1998) Word Recognition in Literacy: Philadelphia: Lawrence Eribaum Ott,P. (2007) How to Manage Spelling Successfully: London: Routledge Read, C. (1986) Childrens Creative Spelling: London: Routledge Schlagel, R.C. (2002) Classroom Spelling Instruction: History, research and Practice: Reading, Research and Instruction Vol.1 Issue 42 pp.44-57 Scott, C. (2000) Principles and Methods of Spelling Instruction: Topics in Language Disorders Vol.3 Issue 20 pp.66-82 Scott, R. (2007) Spelling research: Classroom Implications: Encyclopedia of Language and Literacy Development @ http://literacyencyclopedia.ca/index.php?fa=items.showtopicId=230 Smith, M. (2008) Howard Gardner and Multiple Intelligences @ http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm Spear-Swelling, L. Brucker, P. Alfano, M. (2005) Teachers literacy-related knowledge about English word structure: Annals of Dyslexia Vol.53 pp72-103 @ http://www.southernct.edu/publications/facbib/S/spear-swerling.htm Stone, C. Silliman, E. Ehren, B. Apel, K. (2005) The Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and Disorders: Guilford: Guilford Press Templeton, S. Morris, D. (1999) Questions Teachers Ask About Spelling: Reading Research Quarterly Vol.34, No.1 pp.102-112 Westwood, P. (2005) Spelling: Approaches to Teaching and Assessment: Camberwell : ACER Worthy, M. Invernizzi, J. (1990) Spelling Errors of Normal and Disabled Students on the Achievement Levels One Through Four: Instructional Implications: Annals of Dyslexia Issue 40 pp.138-151: Springer Science Business Media Zutell, J. (1996) The Directed Spelling Thinking Activity: Providing an Effective Balance in Word Study Instruction: The Reading Teacher Vol.2 Issue 50 pp.98-108 @ http://www.reading.org/General/Publications/Journals/rt.aspx?mode=redirect Zutell, J. (2005) A Student-Active Learning Approach to Spelling Instruction @ http://www.zaner-bloser.com/educator/products/spelling/index.aspx?id=4820view=article Zutell, J. C. Compton. (1993) Learning to spell in the elementary grades: The knowledge base for effective teaching Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Reading Association, San Antonio, TX. @ journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid [1] David Bell, chief inspector of Ofsted was interviewed by The Telegraph in 2004 and stated the governments programme for literacy teaching at primary level is confused.many teachers are given virtually no training in teaching children how to spell. (Claire 2004). [2] A 2002 review of Key Stage 2 statistics stated accuracy in spelling has declined. (Driscoll in Hinds 2004). A 2009 review of national tests stated the ability of children to spell has declined. Pupils aged between 11-14 made more spelling errors than they did in 2000, four years into a scheme to ensure primary pupils have daily literacy hour lessons among 7 year olds spelling tests improved slightly even though heads complained the spelling tests were too hard. (Daily Mail 2009) [3] The school is still reliant on spelling lessons characterized by the use of Basel published weekly lists of words, written exercises focusing on menorisation and two weekly tests at the beginning and end of each week. [4] Developmental stage theory recommends spelling be taught systematically in relation to individual development. Instruction is based on identified student needs as they progress through the developmental stages. The incidental inventive writing approach, which advocates teaching spelling as the need arises in student writing throughout the school day. The multi-sensory approach focuses on the theory of learning styles and multiple intelligences to identify the best strategy to teach individual pupils. (Schlagel 2002) [5] Phonetic is the true beginning of alphabetic writing and reflects some understanding of phoneme-grapheme correspondences), Patterns Within Words (deeper understanding of orthography (the visual written form). Syllable Juncture (the abstract conceptualization of the spelling system, focuses on the place within words where syllables meet, and an understanding of spelling changes when inflectional endings are added to root/base words (plurals, past tense marker, present progressive verb endings, other spelling concepts that are grasped at this stage include possessive forms and contractions). Meaning-Derivation (concentrates on the morphological connections (coding words by the parts of words that signal meaning and grammar) in English orthography. Students learn that in written English, words that are related in meaning (sharing a common root) are usually spelled similarly, even if they are pronounced differently. (Scott 2007). Please see Appendix B for a complete explanation of the 5 stages. [6] QIWK itself consists of eight progressively complex stages of word lists and spelling patterns relating to DST. Word lists and word sorts match the developmental stage with later stages (Syllable Juncture Meaning Derivative stages) involving morphological principles such as base and derived forms and word origins. [7] This aspect of think-aloud strategies form an interesting link to the multi-sensory approach that will be explored later in the chapter. (See Appendix C for detailed examples of word sorts and pupil responses.) [8] The study analyzed childrens spelling of silent -e long vowels and different types of -ed past tense words for signs of a strong developmental progression of qualitatively distinct stages from semi phonetic to phonetic to transitional to correct spelling over time. (Scott 2007). [9] Ott offers the following examples; sounding word patterns such as the ight sequence in light, bright, fright and might. Mnemonics such as our dear mother uses great rigour and vigour for every Endeavour. Syllable counting such as /mag/ni/fi/cent and /won/der/ful. Word derivations such as signature derived from sign or automatic derived from auto. (Ott 2007 p.106) [10] Ott explains the use of a computer keyboard will aid learning because they can utilise motor memory to remember finger placement and visual memory to memorise patterns. Graphics packages will help remember pictures and associate letter patterns with pictures. (Ott 2007 p.106). [11] Gardners multiple intelligence theory identifies 7 intelligence types; linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal. (Smith 2008) [12] Case Study results were difficult to obtain but Zutells work has been endorsed by The International Reading Association, The National Council of Teachers of English and The Language Arts and Reading Company. This highlights the perceived effectiveness of his approach and justifies inclusion here.